Pioneers of the plantation economy: militarism, dispossession and the limits of growth in the Wa State of Myanmar

The characteristic mobility of highland populations in Southeast Asia relied to a large extent on their particular adaption an ecological environment: swidden cultivation tubers mountain slopes. This ecology corresponded cosmologies which potency was limitless, or at least had no fixed and delimited precinct (as did the rice paddies Buddhist realms valleys). Military state building, modern transport, new crops agricultural technologies have effectively ended cultivation. In this article, I follow pioneers plantation economy Wa State Myanmar, who dispossess local land employ them as labour. limits growth they encounter are (a) natural environment (b) resistance populations. Yet, even though there such limits, these aspire is still limitless. It however channelled through life, epitomised plantation, nourished excessive feasting, maintained by kinship dynamics capture care. La mobilité caractéristique des hautes terres d’Asie du Sud-Est repose en grande partie sur leur adaptation particulière à un environnement écologique: la culture tubercules abattis-brûlis dans les régions de montagne. Cette écologie correspondait lesquelles puissance était illimitée, ou moins n’avait pas périmètre fixe et délimité (comme rizières royaumes bouddhistes vallées). construction l’État militaire, transports modernes nouvelles cultures agricoles ont effectivement mis fin brûlis. Dans cet je suis pionniers l’économie qui dépouillent locales leurs emploient comme main-d’oeuvre plantations. Les limites croissance qu’ils rencontrent sont a) l’environnement naturel b) résistance locales. Pourtant, même si ces existent, laquelle aspirent est toujours sans limite. Elle cependant canalisée par une nouvelle économie vie, incarnée nourri festins excessifs entretenue dynamique parenté soins. A classic origin story told retold among China Myanmar about flight from Keng Tung: long-ago past, ruled over Shan great city Tung.11 article based 18 months fieldwork hills during four fieldtrips between June 2014 November 2017. names smaller places ordinary people been anonymised, following anthropological convention. But were tricked Shan, came with army elephants expelled city. Those went ahead broke plantain leaves along path so that those coming behind would find way. plantains grow back very fast, latecomers got lost stay plains: entered mountains where until today, others ‘left-behind Wa’, Git, ‘Hill Thai’, Tai Loi. From then on, every time Sawbwa installed Tung, some left-behind feasted palace ritually (Enriquez 1918: 33; Mangrai 1981: 230). Today, Kengtung recognise Burmese overlords anymore, but Loi, descendants Wa, play important part rituals Songkran, Thai New Year Festival, specifically carrying playing drums. Even imply mutual interdependence, it clear Loi subordinate themselves Khuen, majority group today’s thus annually repeating humiliation expulsion centuries ago (Karlsson 2013). 100 km North Pang Hsang, capital State, we can observe inversion ritual expulsion. Each year Songkran rulers receive gifts villagers. Similar princes representatives central authorities sit elevated thrones, while villagers squat front them. During rituals, pay honours deliver presents them, including fruits, sweets sticky rice, turn red envelopes money officials. Most leaders villages Hsang easily be distinguished subordinates: dark-skinned fatigues, followed entourage soldiers, one mistake for villager. core relatives associates Tax Pang, also known his Chinese name Bao Youxiang. brothers Rang Jiet, born village Taoh Mie 1940s 50s. When children, neighbouring armies just started move into hills, teenagers took raids headhunting rituals. They rose ranks guerrilla Communist Party Burma 1970s 80s, founded United Army (UWSA) 1989, presiding its de-facto since. Like brothers, most members committee politburo veterans Burma. All accumulated substantial personal wealth – bureaucracy administration relatively weak, infrastructure paid directly elites. trade drugs played role emergence elite, already 1990s, diversify other industries, mining food, well large-scale investments China, Thailand (where own, instance, minor airline). Ordinary traders often tell stories unimaginable commanders: commander much cash stored warehouses mouldy taken out. His servants dried truckloads 100-Yuan batches huge courtyard several days, like dry corn cobs tea leaves. served house commonly know normal 50 kg rice-bag carry three million yuan (the equivalent € 380,000). warehouse seen two Bentleys, Hsang’s garages, monster truck imported said worth exactly bag full money. elites turned around old Wa’s highlands re-conquered lowlands. when fought Burma, soldiers plains Meng Pok Yawn traditionally settlements neighbours. Since then, established facto size Belgium, tightly connected business ties. grown up border. lifetime, saw changes: conquered surrounding valleys since overseen changes up. off, quite literally, pioneers, is, foot soldiers,22 etymology English word ‘pioneer’ goes Old French ‘peonier’, ‘foot-soldier’, cf. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pioneer first generation become agrarian capitalists, define pioneering ethos will apparent. many ways, here want focus economies State. Using income elsewhere, invested forms commercial agriculture. rubber plantations opened rely communication production introduced military purposes. required forced resettlements, place especially 1990s continue present day. requires lot investment, incurs losses (especially rubber, recent years) generally not profitable. so, essential sovereignty because institution ‘garrison-entrepôts’ (Roitman 2005): provide radical means control populations, offer nexus animals plants. What effects concepts good life Wa? hunting accompanied animistic worldviews political arrangements emphasised autonomy, mutuality incommensurability. possibly similarities (Tooker 1996), contrast limitless power valleys: whereas highlands, political, economic systems remain open principle, borders restrictions each realm. If understand ‘potency’ horizon possible action, system uplands, frameworks insurmountable inequalities lowlands (Tannenbaum 1989). opposition different long series contrasts Asia, terms ecology, religion, politics (Leach 1954; Kirsch 1973; Durrenberger 1981; Russell oppositions head: former highlanders, now rule schemes Nicola Tannenbaum, Thomas used describe differences lowland suggested world yet roads, air travel, weapons, chemicals social media. fact, seems only holds point James Scott has insisted introduction acclaimed book art being governed (2009). what happened ecologies after technologies? machines obviously make difference. Plantations require technical assemblages plants, humans ‘legible’, uniform, visible therefore manipulable. saplings brought plantations, chainsaws, processing. More fundamentally, fundamental capacities statecraft legible, resettle, exploit. all cannot separated provided drug economy. briefly introduce history militarism dispossession form background today. Revolutionary led far cry classical egalitarian uplands hierarchical simply adopted models, instead created ‘economy life’ premised violent submission economy, harnessing care same includes human animal plant populations: mean centres human, care.33 call similar Fernando Santos-Granero (2009) calls ‘political study slavery war Americas. While focuses problem captives, anthropologist Perig Pitrou suggests general theoretical framework he (somewhat awkwardly) ‘cosmo-bio-politics’ (2016) ‘general pragmatics (Pitrou 2014). highlights how actions (of humans, animals, plants spirits) coordinated create ‘agentive configurations proper 2014: 102). both revivals project, namely unified analysis biological, cosmological allow ‘life’ emerge fundamentally attempts Frazer Hocart, articulation kingship. Such formulation allows us include radically beings, attention specific modalities them: our case, people, machines, take Within potencies limitations. ‘Potency’ refers horizons action given cosmo-technological frameworks, uses technology embedded practice. main purpose contours current within them; building earlier outlines Tannenbaum), reflect comes against; militarised frontier region Northwest typical Zomians: 1960s, ethnic lived fortified independent states. armies, miners missionaries previously, beyond reach administrations religions. Swidden remained mainstay livelihoods 20th century, before arrival Baptist 1930s, script existed. autonomy soon establishment People’s Republic, side newly international border, communities strongmen supported foreign (including Liberation Army, Kuomintang, Tatmadaw CIA). At end (CPB) headquarters support, quickly remaining armed groups warlords. CPB lasting government institutions level village-circles, structure offices number schools. 1970s, built dirt roads better existed border supply transport. decades small (Bao Youxiang) Lai (Zhao Nilai) became deputy brigade commanders 1980s. Unlike peers, schools across early 19670s, spent considerable away home villages, together Chinese, Burmese, Lahu soldiers. lingua franca 80s manpower, machinery supplied China. support fade high tides Cultural Revolution (1968–71), units alternative sources revenue. Given industries negligibly small, opium source income: first, taxation trade, overseeing collaborate middlemen region. Particularly influential Nanpaklin, originally Aishuai fled Armies 1950s settled Salween, near Mount Maw. Sah Tao, partner Wei Mingcheng son Xuegang, middlemen, fluent having strong connections entire called 'Golden Triangle'. commanders, mutiny against leadership 1989. These men, extended families, amassed wealth. As mentioned, taxes, later involvement narcotics. today diverse portfolios mining, gemstones, real estate Opium produced providing farmers income. best times production, 1980s area suitable crop. Small-scale benefit profits made heroin. monopolised emerged marooned KMT CCP region, collaborated groups. taxed traders, involved organised mule caravans transporting raw Golden Triangle. After UWSA itself strongest For relations government, Khun Sa’s Mengtai powerful defeating Sa, occupied areas belonged Border, forcefully resettled 120,000 ‘Southern Command’. Southern Command long-time associate Nanpaklin joined UWSA. Command, battle, various skirmishes On basis strength UWSA, plays roles (Martov 2015), estate, transport businesses wider Rather than interests outside me agriculture and, extent, industry Having peasant-warriors themselves, older farms once wherewithal do so. Many own farms, granaries appear grotesque compared farmers. Mie, head mansion-palaces buildings mix farm houses, irrigated dug slopes few streams. mansion-farms surrounded pine tea. monocultures cash-cropping increasingly common. governments promoted mono-cropping (Steinmüller 2013: chap. 3). areas, agribusiness (Zhang Donaldson 2008). One key challenge investors appropriate enough capitalism held bay communal rights level; little resembling formal population subsistence farmers, expanded rapidly last decades. insurgent army, cropping continued efforts states sedentarisation substitution. Until practised policies substitution, resettlement (always justified development substitution), substitute crop, (which long-term plantations), models Another push paddies. objectives, advances 1989.44 Assessing 1980s, official writes: ‘Except traditional ways planting poppies winter spring, crops, let alone any paddies, slash-and-burn cultivation, era primitive backwards agriculture’ (Shi 2012: 106). There doubt steep pose productivity, decades, numerous irrigation channels cut Northern Command. Partly ideological reasons (irrigation sign progress), partly increasing pressure use, strongly discourage Exhortations respect meetings regularly district fieldwork). Additionally, facilitated State’s network. tarmac connecting Nandeng, Mengmao, Pok, Sao Pha - major towns improved trucks critical hardware harvested products people. time, readily available mobile phones. telegraph network, communist guerrillas help side, networks always more reliable telephone network 2000s, phone grid maps, Union mainly Mobile Unicom. Related technological innovations communication, SUVs trucks, cement mixers, conveyors, ventilators ovens. State; additionally, down-side chains (often situated border). course generations mediators spirits. such, elements contemporary life’, classes beings. Technology does determine shape phones tractors kinds possibilities constraints relations. perhaps obvious compare absence arguments society world: formalisation Leach (1954) (1973) proposed, evolutions ‘Asiatic’ formations Friedman (1998 [1979]) anarchic spirit Zomia’s ‘escape formations’ (Scott 2009) SUVs, AK47s Instead, vintage presupposition shared ‘simple’ technology; if assumption contestable untenable today.55 Whether could understood ‘external’ systemic understanding upland–lowland contestation debates. Nugent (1982), pointed out Leach’s model oscillation matrilateral cross-cousin marriage ignoring trade. Friedman’s structural Marxist notions yield, power, density like; altogether aimed larger offered mathematical formulae. (2009), finally, theory ends Fiskesjö (2010) summarises relationship chiefs offers corresponding explanations why ultimately promote creation stable centralised government. None however, explicitly problematises theorises under change possible: (by foot, truck), (oral, literate electronic) knife, hoe machine). To appeared Hills general, particular, next section look appropriation up; feedback cycles arrangements, kinship. clearly labour plantation: numbers labourers nearby. break-up programmes, done aforementioned technologies. measurements legibility, imposed Plants planted masse line, variety species. Hybrid seeds, pesticides herbicides multinationals planters buy markets. People frequently space force elsewhere regimes combine free unfree (Murray Li 2017), enclosures correspond ‘regimes dispossession’ (Levien movements, voluntary forced. 1950s, incoming migrated elsewhere. Under millenarian prophets warlords, escaped east Triangle proper, closer tide ar